Cells, BMS & grid-scale storage — how batteries store and deliver energy.
Open a wound lithium-ion cell, follow ion and electron transport paths, and observe terminal voltage, polarization and delivered energy during discharge.
Reconfigure a battery pack between series and parallel arrangements and compare voltage, ampere-hour capacity, current sharing and equivalent resistance.
Compare a battery's true state of charge with a coulomb-counting estimate, introduce sensor bias, and correct it with a rested-voltage calibration.
Trace a regulated CC/CV charger through constant-current, constant-voltage and termination stages, including temperature-inhibit behavior.
Apply an external heater to one of four cells and separate an external heating trigger from a bounded internal reaction and neighbor-to-neighbor propagation.
Trace heat from a cell core through its case, a liquid cold plate, circulating coolant and a finned radiator with fan, out to ambient air.
Inspect cell-voltage taps, Kelvin current sensing, precharge-gated contactor closure and a latched overcurrent/voltage/thermal protection chain.
Compare passive resistor bleed and active energy-transfer balancing on a mismatched series cell string, with SOC spread, loss and delivered-charge readouts.
Run an online double-conversion UPS through utility loss, battery operation, restoration and reserve exhaustion while protecting a critical load.
Dispatch a grid-connected storage rack and bidirectional converter for self-consumption, peak shaving or manual targets, with power/energy limits and SOC reserves.